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Tuesday, December 23, 2014
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Thursday, December 11, 2014
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Wednesday, November 5, 2014
Ebook Marketing
April 11, 2011 
eBook Marketing Tips for Maximum Exposure and Profit
By
David A Horne
Submitted On May 21, 2011
eBook Marketing for Maximum Exposure and Profit is something that
all writers and authors want to learn about. But few follow through in
taking on the role of promoting their own eBook. The eBook marketing
tips in this article will help take you from unknown writer to top
selling eBook author!
Do you know what the difference is between unsuccessful authors who struggle with selling just a few of their eBooks and the best-selling authors who have a legion of fans waiting with anticipation for their next eBook or book to be released?
I can tell you that it's certainly not because the best-selling authors are the only authors who have exceptional writing skills! And it's not that million dollar marketing campaign that is funded by their publisher either!
What's required is an "understanding" of what it takes to market their eBook and that involves these key points that you can start implementing within the next few minutes.
Do Your Research and Understand Your Ideal Customer!
By doing some research, you will be able to devise a plan that lets people know what unique information or story you have for them over any other eBook already out there on the market. You will also learn just how much people in your target audience are willing to pay for your eBook. And you will be able to document why your customers will buy from you and not the other author listed above or below you in the online eBook store.
I will continually emphasise the key point that you must target your potential customers. The more successful you are in identifying your target audience, the more successful your eBook marketing online campaign will be.
Build your "Brand" and "Author Platform" that will attract an established loyal audience that will buy because of you!
People will buy your eBook because of You! They will feel confident in knowing that they are getting value for money based on previous experiences. Even if it's getting to know you from your blog, reading sample chapters, or watching eBook trailers that you have created and submitted to YouTube.
As an author, you will find out very quickly that without an established audience who knows you, likes you or trusts you that you will struggle to make every sale. To build this audience that trusts you enough to buy you're eBook you will need to follow the strategies and techniques found in this eBook.
Have a Way of Connecting With Your List of Loyal Fans Who Want to Know When You Release Your eBook!
This can be done in many ways. The most widely used way of communicating with your fans is through the use of social media. You can instantly communicate via Twitter, Facebook or your email list.
You can also do this via your own blog, RSS feeds, press release sent direct to your list of fans or via your author page.
Implement a proven eBook marketing plan that will take your potential customer from contemplation to buying customer!
The first two steps of research and market strategy design are all about providing you with the information you need to reach your target market. Now it is time for action. Now you must use our proven techniques documented here to reach your ideal customer and provide them with no other choice but to take out their wallet or purse and buy your eBook.
The key to making money online as an eBook author or publisher is by giving away free articles, tips, eBooks or quality content with a clear path to at least one source of revenue! You must first give to receive!
What Else Should You Know?
Let's take it one step further and provide you with some more facts that you need to be aware of before embarking on the journey of marketing your eBook.
1. Decide Early on What Your Goals Are With Regards to Your eBook.
Is it going to be given away for free or are you going to sell it? You will run into all sorts of problems if you give it away for free then try to sell it. Never give anything away that you may want to charge money for later on!
2. Don't Sell You eBook if You Are Not Happy With it.
Your reputation as an author is everything. Word spreads very fast these days through the various social media forums. The last thing you need is for a bunch of paying customers to feel that they were ripped off by in buying your eBook. It's all about value for money.
3. eBook Marketing is an Endless Process.
The day you stop marketing and promoting your eBook is the day you will start to see sales drop. If you want to make money online, and you want to do it consistently, then you have to market continuously.
This eBook marketing section will show you how to do it and we will share with you the most powerful marketing tools available to you!
4. Protect Your Work.
Many online stores require DRM eBooks. Some are DRM free. Either way, be sure to add some level of security to your eBook or website where people can download your eBook from. Don't use an obvious title or URL for your download page.
5. Make Sure You Deliver on What You Promise in Your Sales Pitch.
Stay away from all the outrageous sales pitches and just let people know exactly what they will get from your eBook and then deliver on it. Your reputation is vital as an author so don't mislead anyone otherwise no-one will buy your eBooks again.
6. You Don't Have to Re-invent the Wheel!
You don't need to re-invent how sales pages or websites look. Learn from those who are successful and already selling a lot of eBooks from their site. The same applies for eBook stores. Choose one that looks professional and has a structured process for buying and taking payments.
7. You Must Have a Professional Cover Graphic for Your eBook.
People will judge an eBook by its cover so don't lose a potential customer because you try to save a few dollars when creating a cover that falls short of what is required to grab the viewers attention.
8. When You Write Be Original.
Many authors do their research and get ideas from others; however, you should never copy old ideas and re-sell them. You have to come up with something new if you wish to create a strong reputation for yourself. You will likely have customers who have already read other eBooks in your category. And if you re-hatch old ideas they will catch you out.
9. Your Marketing Campaign Plan of Action
Your marketing campaign requires a plan of action based on the identification of your ideal customer. If you think you can randomly post comments online without any structure or purpose, then you will likely waste a lot of your time. You will need to be able to measure your results just as any other marketing company would do.
10. Everyone With a Computer is a Potential Customer!
The Internet has changed how the world conducts its marketing. The internet has allowed "every person with a computer in the world" to potentially become one of your customers. Previously, store owners would just advertise within their local area.
Now, with eBooks being a digital file, anyone, anywhere can buy your eBook. This powerful thought is what you should focus on when creating your online marketing campaign.
11. Publishing Has Changed and the Author is Now in Control
Traditional publishing has been hit hard in recent years due to the sudden rise in popularity of digital publishing and the high uptake of eBook reading devices. This benefits the author! It is exciting times for authors in the writing world as eBooks have put some new life back into reading.
12. Embrace and Utilise the Internet and Technology
As an eBook author you must be willing to embrace the internet and technology in order to market your eBook and generate sales. For many people this can be a daunting task where your first thought is "it's too complicated for my level of computer knowledge." The tools we have listed in our marketing plan can be utilised by anyone.
The eBook marketing tools available to you today have never been more accessible and easier to use. And the best thing is that the majority of them are free. You no longer need to know html code or how to build your own website or blog. The "WYSWYG" website building tools allow you to easily build your own website for very little cost.
13. Social Media
If you think that social media sites such as Facebook and Twitter are just for teenagers, you will be surprised to find out that some of the most successful authors use these sites to generate a lot of interest for their work and to also connect with their target audience.
14. Your Customers are Online and it is Those People Who Also Use These Sites Who Could Buy Your eBook. You will need to use technology if you want to reach them so you need to be online or at least have your eBook or author page available to be found.
15. Get Online and Diversify
In order to reach the millions of people buying eBooks on the internet you need to be online and reach them via a multiple of different avenues. This includes connecting with them via social media sites, your author web page, blogs, audio podcasts, YouTube videos and many more sites listed further on in this eBook.
16. The Internet Has Also Become the Fastest and Best Way to Build Your Author Platform.
The internet allows people to find you and then hopefully engage with you which will start that "Author - Reader" connection. Then, over time they will then be more likely to buy your eBooks.
17. The World has Gone Mobile!
We are now living in a "mobile" world where we have access to various mobile devices such as iPhone, iPads, mobile and cell phones to all sorts of eReaders. The benefit to you as an author is that you know can reach a bigger audience than you once could via one-on-one marketing techniques. You just need to reach the mass market utilising the right tools for you.
Our eBook Author Academy's mission is to assist you in getting more eyes on your eBook. And not just any eyes, but the ones who really want or need it!
Do you know what the difference is between unsuccessful authors who struggle with selling just a few of their eBooks and the best-selling authors who have a legion of fans waiting with anticipation for their next eBook or book to be released?
I can tell you that it's certainly not because the best-selling authors are the only authors who have exceptional writing skills! And it's not that million dollar marketing campaign that is funded by their publisher either!
What's required is an "understanding" of what it takes to market their eBook and that involves these key points that you can start implementing within the next few minutes.
Do Your Research and Understand Your Ideal Customer!
By doing some research, you will be able to devise a plan that lets people know what unique information or story you have for them over any other eBook already out there on the market. You will also learn just how much people in your target audience are willing to pay for your eBook. And you will be able to document why your customers will buy from you and not the other author listed above or below you in the online eBook store.
I will continually emphasise the key point that you must target your potential customers. The more successful you are in identifying your target audience, the more successful your eBook marketing online campaign will be.
Build your "Brand" and "Author Platform" that will attract an established loyal audience that will buy because of you!
People will buy your eBook because of You! They will feel confident in knowing that they are getting value for money based on previous experiences. Even if it's getting to know you from your blog, reading sample chapters, or watching eBook trailers that you have created and submitted to YouTube.
As an author, you will find out very quickly that without an established audience who knows you, likes you or trusts you that you will struggle to make every sale. To build this audience that trusts you enough to buy you're eBook you will need to follow the strategies and techniques found in this eBook.
Have a Way of Connecting With Your List of Loyal Fans Who Want to Know When You Release Your eBook!
This can be done in many ways. The most widely used way of communicating with your fans is through the use of social media. You can instantly communicate via Twitter, Facebook or your email list.
You can also do this via your own blog, RSS feeds, press release sent direct to your list of fans or via your author page.
Implement a proven eBook marketing plan that will take your potential customer from contemplation to buying customer!
The first two steps of research and market strategy design are all about providing you with the information you need to reach your target market. Now it is time for action. Now you must use our proven techniques documented here to reach your ideal customer and provide them with no other choice but to take out their wallet or purse and buy your eBook.
The key to making money online as an eBook author or publisher is by giving away free articles, tips, eBooks or quality content with a clear path to at least one source of revenue! You must first give to receive!
What Else Should You Know?
Let's take it one step further and provide you with some more facts that you need to be aware of before embarking on the journey of marketing your eBook.
1. Decide Early on What Your Goals Are With Regards to Your eBook.
Is it going to be given away for free or are you going to sell it? You will run into all sorts of problems if you give it away for free then try to sell it. Never give anything away that you may want to charge money for later on!
2. Don't Sell You eBook if You Are Not Happy With it.
Your reputation as an author is everything. Word spreads very fast these days through the various social media forums. The last thing you need is for a bunch of paying customers to feel that they were ripped off by in buying your eBook. It's all about value for money.
3. eBook Marketing is an Endless Process.
The day you stop marketing and promoting your eBook is the day you will start to see sales drop. If you want to make money online, and you want to do it consistently, then you have to market continuously.
This eBook marketing section will show you how to do it and we will share with you the most powerful marketing tools available to you!
4. Protect Your Work.
Many online stores require DRM eBooks. Some are DRM free. Either way, be sure to add some level of security to your eBook or website where people can download your eBook from. Don't use an obvious title or URL for your download page.
5. Make Sure You Deliver on What You Promise in Your Sales Pitch.
Stay away from all the outrageous sales pitches and just let people know exactly what they will get from your eBook and then deliver on it. Your reputation is vital as an author so don't mislead anyone otherwise no-one will buy your eBooks again.
6. You Don't Have to Re-invent the Wheel!
You don't need to re-invent how sales pages or websites look. Learn from those who are successful and already selling a lot of eBooks from their site. The same applies for eBook stores. Choose one that looks professional and has a structured process for buying and taking payments.
7. You Must Have a Professional Cover Graphic for Your eBook.
People will judge an eBook by its cover so don't lose a potential customer because you try to save a few dollars when creating a cover that falls short of what is required to grab the viewers attention.
8. When You Write Be Original.
Many authors do their research and get ideas from others; however, you should never copy old ideas and re-sell them. You have to come up with something new if you wish to create a strong reputation for yourself. You will likely have customers who have already read other eBooks in your category. And if you re-hatch old ideas they will catch you out.
9. Your Marketing Campaign Plan of Action
Your marketing campaign requires a plan of action based on the identification of your ideal customer. If you think you can randomly post comments online without any structure or purpose, then you will likely waste a lot of your time. You will need to be able to measure your results just as any other marketing company would do.
10. Everyone With a Computer is a Potential Customer!
The Internet has changed how the world conducts its marketing. The internet has allowed "every person with a computer in the world" to potentially become one of your customers. Previously, store owners would just advertise within their local area.
Now, with eBooks being a digital file, anyone, anywhere can buy your eBook. This powerful thought is what you should focus on when creating your online marketing campaign.
11. Publishing Has Changed and the Author is Now in Control
Traditional publishing has been hit hard in recent years due to the sudden rise in popularity of digital publishing and the high uptake of eBook reading devices. This benefits the author! It is exciting times for authors in the writing world as eBooks have put some new life back into reading.
12. Embrace and Utilise the Internet and Technology
As an eBook author you must be willing to embrace the internet and technology in order to market your eBook and generate sales. For many people this can be a daunting task where your first thought is "it's too complicated for my level of computer knowledge." The tools we have listed in our marketing plan can be utilised by anyone.
The eBook marketing tools available to you today have never been more accessible and easier to use. And the best thing is that the majority of them are free. You no longer need to know html code or how to build your own website or blog. The "WYSWYG" website building tools allow you to easily build your own website for very little cost.
13. Social Media
If you think that social media sites such as Facebook and Twitter are just for teenagers, you will be surprised to find out that some of the most successful authors use these sites to generate a lot of interest for their work and to also connect with their target audience.
14. Your Customers are Online and it is Those People Who Also Use These Sites Who Could Buy Your eBook. You will need to use technology if you want to reach them so you need to be online or at least have your eBook or author page available to be found.
15. Get Online and Diversify
In order to reach the millions of people buying eBooks on the internet you need to be online and reach them via a multiple of different avenues. This includes connecting with them via social media sites, your author web page, blogs, audio podcasts, YouTube videos and many more sites listed further on in this eBook.
16. The Internet Has Also Become the Fastest and Best Way to Build Your Author Platform.
The internet allows people to find you and then hopefully engage with you which will start that "Author - Reader" connection. Then, over time they will then be more likely to buy your eBooks.
17. The World has Gone Mobile!
We are now living in a "mobile" world where we have access to various mobile devices such as iPhone, iPads, mobile and cell phones to all sorts of eReaders. The benefit to you as an author is that you know can reach a bigger audience than you once could via one-on-one marketing techniques. You just need to reach the mass market utilising the right tools for you.
Our eBook Author Academy's mission is to assist you in getting more eyes on your eBook. And not just any eyes, but the ones who really want or need it!
If you could think of the most rewarding and amazing success
story for your eBook what would it be? Would it be selling 20,000
copies? Would it be seeing your eBook on a bestseller list? How about a
new career as a professional writer? Maybe it will be just hearing the
personal stories from one your readers about how your eBook has enriched
or changed their life? Whatever it may be, our eBook Author Academy
will provide you with all the eBook marketing tools, writing tips and
resources to help you achieve your dream! Visit http://www.eBookAuthorAcademy.com which has been helping writers become successfully published authors since 2004.
Article Source:
http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=David_A_Horne
Wednesday, October 29, 2014
Secure Your Finances With Three Simple Actions
Millions of people do not understand how important it is to be financially stable. Financial stability does not necessarily refer to having a well paying job and a lot of money. In order to be secure, one has to know how to handle their monetary resources. You need to be able to determine how you will spend, save and invest your money. This will make sure that you are financially secure.
How to use your money
There are simple tricks you can apply to your life to ensure you are utilizing your money well. The three main elements are to make sure you can;
· Spend
· Save
· Invest
When you get your salary or profits from your business ventures, you must be willing to pay attention to all these three areas. The secrets to maintaining a constant structure that will ensure you are financially stable is by following the pointers below.
1. Budget
Always budget whenever you get your money. Be logical when you do so. Write down all your expenses and needs. When you budget, always indicate payments you have to make to insurance companies or loan payments if they are not part of your net pay. Once you have a clear picture of how much you are spending, you can now know how much to save.
2. Saving
Choose a savings account that will generate more funds for you. You may need to do some research before you settle for one. If you have dependents, you may want to put money aside for their needs as well such as tuition savings. Allocate your savings according to your needs.
3. Invest
Investing ensures that your future is secure. Once you have done your savings and budgeted well, make sure you take a leap of faith and invest your money in other ways. For instance, you can put some money into company shares.
For the sake of your family, you can also apply for insurance. Life insurance is the best since it covers both you and your loved ones. There are many options available for such insurance covers like new policies that offer life insurance without medical.
With these three factors in place, you can begin to take charge of your finances. In the event that you have extra money to spare, hiring a financial manager will ensure you keep track of all your expenditures. Be sure to prioritize in the first stages so that you meet your goals and live within your means.
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/7939022
How to use your money
There are simple tricks you can apply to your life to ensure you are utilizing your money well. The three main elements are to make sure you can;
· Spend
· Save
· Invest
When you get your salary or profits from your business ventures, you must be willing to pay attention to all these three areas. The secrets to maintaining a constant structure that will ensure you are financially stable is by following the pointers below.
1. Budget
Always budget whenever you get your money. Be logical when you do so. Write down all your expenses and needs. When you budget, always indicate payments you have to make to insurance companies or loan payments if they are not part of your net pay. Once you have a clear picture of how much you are spending, you can now know how much to save.
2. Saving
Choose a savings account that will generate more funds for you. You may need to do some research before you settle for one. If you have dependents, you may want to put money aside for their needs as well such as tuition savings. Allocate your savings according to your needs.
3. Invest
Investing ensures that your future is secure. Once you have done your savings and budgeted well, make sure you take a leap of faith and invest your money in other ways. For instance, you can put some money into company shares.
For the sake of your family, you can also apply for insurance. Life insurance is the best since it covers both you and your loved ones. There are many options available for such insurance covers like new policies that offer life insurance without medical.
With these three factors in place, you can begin to take charge of your finances. In the event that you have extra money to spare, hiring a financial manager will ensure you keep track of all your expenditures. Be sure to prioritize in the first stages so that you meet your goals and live within your means.
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/7939022
Tuesday, May 27, 2014
<blockquote class="twitter-tweet" lang="en"><p>Connect with me on Myspace. <a href="https://t.co/cL7DkGuWRz">https://t.co/cL7DkGuWRz</a></p>— RAJI AYOBAMI AKEEM (@OLAKENFAQ) <a href="https://twitter.com/OLAKENFAQ/statuses/464300766107156481">May 8, 2014</a></blockquote>
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Monday, February 17, 2014
Way to Help Your Pets Have Good Dental Health
We can't just let the month of February pass without making an
article particularly dedicated for your pets. Why do we bother anyway?
It's not as if we are one of the bets pet lovers in the world. No, we're
not. The truth is it is because of you. As a pet owner, you need to
know some things about taking care of animals' dental health. It is
February and aside from celebrating the kind of love you have with your
partner, it is also the time to show your pets some love. February is
Pet Dental Health month, too! After you visit your dentist, go straight
to the nearest veterinary dental clinic in your town.
The thing is everyone is too busy identifying their own dental problems and making a big deal of it that they forget they are not the only ones who have teeth. In fact, they are not the only ones who eat and chew. If you truly care for your pets, you must get yourself into thinking that the same predicaments could also happen to your felines and canines at home. In that case, their dental health becomes your concern as well. However, cognitive concern isn't enough. You have to take action. What's the first thing to do? Take the pet to a veterinary dental clinic? No. You can save that for later.
Checking the signs
It is in identifying the signs that will lead you to take the next step towards giving your pet the oral health it needs. Does your pet have bad breath? Is he or she consistently drooling? Do you often see him or her pawning at the mouth? If you answered yes to most of the questions, then your pet is experiencing some oral health problems at the moment. As a pet owner who's just starting out to take care of animals, ask immediate help to a veterinary dentist in a dental clinic of your choice. The signs you've noticed are enough to for you to make the move. Anyway, there's no better advice than something that a veterinary dentist can give you.
Teaching a routine
Carrying the tips from visiting your pet's dental clinic, you now have a bag of dental tricks you can do to your pet as an act of love. You really can't expect animals to clean and take care of their teeth and gums. As a pet owner, you are given the privilege to do the role of a dental advocate toward animals. You must brush you teeth everyday. Incorporating this to your pet's daily routine might be very hard, but it will be worth it in the long run. To make the task a lot easier, you may use canine toothpaste to make the process more bearable for your dogs and feline toothpaste for your cats.
Operant conditioning
Now this will work best pets! Have you ever heard of operant conditioning? It is the process of learning that highly works of rewards and punishments. Every time your pet cooperates with you in the teeth cleaning process, give him or her a treat. On the other hand, if he or she doesn't, a subtle punishment would do - silent treatment. And you be as creative as you want. You don't want to see your beloved pet in pain, do you?
The thing is everyone is too busy identifying their own dental problems and making a big deal of it that they forget they are not the only ones who have teeth. In fact, they are not the only ones who eat and chew. If you truly care for your pets, you must get yourself into thinking that the same predicaments could also happen to your felines and canines at home. In that case, their dental health becomes your concern as well. However, cognitive concern isn't enough. You have to take action. What's the first thing to do? Take the pet to a veterinary dental clinic? No. You can save that for later.
Checking the signs
It is in identifying the signs that will lead you to take the next step towards giving your pet the oral health it needs. Does your pet have bad breath? Is he or she consistently drooling? Do you often see him or her pawning at the mouth? If you answered yes to most of the questions, then your pet is experiencing some oral health problems at the moment. As a pet owner who's just starting out to take care of animals, ask immediate help to a veterinary dentist in a dental clinic of your choice. The signs you've noticed are enough to for you to make the move. Anyway, there's no better advice than something that a veterinary dentist can give you.
Teaching a routine
Carrying the tips from visiting your pet's dental clinic, you now have a bag of dental tricks you can do to your pet as an act of love. You really can't expect animals to clean and take care of their teeth and gums. As a pet owner, you are given the privilege to do the role of a dental advocate toward animals. You must brush you teeth everyday. Incorporating this to your pet's daily routine might be very hard, but it will be worth it in the long run. To make the task a lot easier, you may use canine toothpaste to make the process more bearable for your dogs and feline toothpaste for your cats.
Operant conditioning
Now this will work best pets! Have you ever heard of operant conditioning? It is the process of learning that highly works of rewards and punishments. Every time your pet cooperates with you in the teeth cleaning process, give him or her a treat. On the other hand, if he or she doesn't, a subtle punishment would do - silent treatment. And you be as creative as you want. You don't want to see your beloved pet in pain, do you?
Wednesday, February 12, 2014
Using The Internet To Make Some Money
Given recent technological advances, it is simpler than ever to
make money via the Internet. Each year, more people join the growing
percentage of people who earn money online. You can just supplement your
income from your job or earn enough to support yourself on the
Internet. You'll find good tips in order to get you started.
Consider taking surveys. There are lots of paid surveys to be taken. It is an easy way to make a little extra cash. You may not make a lot from any individual survey. The upside is being able to do these while you sit and relax. The money that is earned can build quickly, also.
Use Google to find money-making opportunities on the Internet. You will find that search engines will deliver up many pages containing countless money making options to choose from. When you do find something that interests you, try researching the company thoroughly. Always be cautious when dealing online.
Use your spare moments wisely. You can perform income-generating tasks online without concentrating too hard. You can find a lot of them on Mturk.com. Do a survey while watching your favorite TV program. You're not going to make a whole bunch of money with these things, but it can help you to earn a little when you're bored.
It can be very time consuming to learn about making money online. One good way to start is to get acquainted with people who have been successful in your niche. Find a mentor and learn everything you can from them. You can make money if you have an open mind.
Avoid up-front fees that some online portals ask for. No legitimate business will make you pay money to start doing work for them. It is quite possible that they will take money from you with no return. Avoid companies like this.
Try to keep your sources of income diverse. It is better to have a few sources of income so that you have options and don't get burnt out doing the same old thing all the time. What's working for you today, might not work tomorrow. Therefore, it is in your own best interest to work for a few different people/businesses. This way, if you underperform in one direction, you still have different kinds of methods you could use.
Make use of your writing skills by writing an E-book and selling it to others via the Internet. It is a great way to write about something you love earn some cash. Recipes are something you could start talking about with your E-book.
Try publishing your own eBook to bring in a little extra money. E-books have become popular. Skilled writers with expertise in a specific subject can make money through self-publications. You can pick from a variety of publishing platforms online. Some offer a commission rate as high as 70%.
Hopefully, this guide has give you reasons why a lot of people use the web to make money. You no longer have to be affected by the poor economy or living without the necessities because you don't have a job. Apply the advice from this piece, and you truly can succeed.
Ernest St. Louis is an enthusiastic online marketing entrepreneur
dedicated to educate, inspire and empower others to achieve success. Consider taking surveys. There are lots of paid surveys to be taken. It is an easy way to make a little extra cash. You may not make a lot from any individual survey. The upside is being able to do these while you sit and relax. The money that is earned can build quickly, also.
Use Google to find money-making opportunities on the Internet. You will find that search engines will deliver up many pages containing countless money making options to choose from. When you do find something that interests you, try researching the company thoroughly. Always be cautious when dealing online.
Use your spare moments wisely. You can perform income-generating tasks online without concentrating too hard. You can find a lot of them on Mturk.com. Do a survey while watching your favorite TV program. You're not going to make a whole bunch of money with these things, but it can help you to earn a little when you're bored.
It can be very time consuming to learn about making money online. One good way to start is to get acquainted with people who have been successful in your niche. Find a mentor and learn everything you can from them. You can make money if you have an open mind.
Avoid up-front fees that some online portals ask for. No legitimate business will make you pay money to start doing work for them. It is quite possible that they will take money from you with no return. Avoid companies like this.
Try to keep your sources of income diverse. It is better to have a few sources of income so that you have options and don't get burnt out doing the same old thing all the time. What's working for you today, might not work tomorrow. Therefore, it is in your own best interest to work for a few different people/businesses. This way, if you underperform in one direction, you still have different kinds of methods you could use.
Make use of your writing skills by writing an E-book and selling it to others via the Internet. It is a great way to write about something you love earn some cash. Recipes are something you could start talking about with your E-book.
Try publishing your own eBook to bring in a little extra money. E-books have become popular. Skilled writers with expertise in a specific subject can make money through self-publications. You can pick from a variety of publishing platforms online. Some offer a commission rate as high as 70%.
Hopefully, this guide has give you reasons why a lot of people use the web to make money. You no longer have to be affected by the poor economy or living without the necessities because you don't have a job. Apply the advice from this piece, and you truly can succeed.
Friday, February 7, 2014
Women and Reproductive Rights
Giving birth to a child is one of the nature's good ones. Now who
would have thought that one day humans might be able to commercialize
it as well?
Traditional Surrogacy (the straight method) is a term wherein a female agrees to carry a child in her womb. Such that she plays a role of surrogate mother to that fetus for next nine months. The word surrogate literally means "substitute" or "replacement". A surrogate mother is therefore a substitute mother. Thus, Surrogacy is an arrangement in which a woman carries and delivers a child for another couple or person. She may have made an arrangement to relinquish it to the biological mother or father to raise, or to a parent who is unrelated to the child. The surrogate mother may be also called the gestational carrier. This is further of two types: Altuistic surrogacy and Commercial surrogacy on the basis of monetary value.
Altruistic surrogacy is a situation where the surrogate receives no financial reward for her pregnancy or the relinquishment of the child (although usually all expenses related to the pregnancy and birth are paid by the intended parents such as medical expenses, maternity clothing, and other related expenses). However, Commercial surrogacy consists of certain amount of financial reward and hence is the most popular of both forms. Such that in was in Manji's case in 2002 that Supreme Court of India held that commercial surrogacy was legal in India. The reason for its popularity is due to firstly, high international demand and secondly, ready availability of poor surrogates. Hence, Commercial surrogacy is sometimes also referred to by the emotionally charged and potentially offensive terms like "wombs for rent", "outsourced pregnancies" or "baby farms".
The roots of surrogacy arose as a result of Babylonian law and custom which allowed this practice wherein an infertile woman could use the practice to avoid the divorce which would otherwise be inevitable. This involved another woman having bear a child for a couple to raise, usually with the male half of the couple as the genetic father. Such that this practice became kind of a revolution in this modern era of globalization especially for developing countries like India only difference being that now the same is done in exchange of money.
Judging by Indian history, the Indian economy has come quite far ever since independence. This is quite evident from current GDP or sex ratio or education rate. However, they all are merely figures and certainly not enough. The actual reality lies beneath her veil and it is safe to say that it is not a pretty picture. It is the combination of poverty, illiteracy and the lack of power with women over their own life which is proving to be a fatal combination. For a country wherein the literacy rate is depleting at fast pace and female fetuses are being killed in wombs or sold at low rates, laws on surrogacy are need of the hour.
There are number of implications that arise as a result of surrogacy. It is all together a complicated process which requires a set of concrete laws that need to govern this arrangement. Surrogacy over adoption is mostly is opted by childless couples because they want to have some kind of genetic attachment to their child to be born. This is often termed as 'genetic vanity". It means that the parents want some kind of genes which they could relate to. It somewhat highlights the quality of only love's one's own and hate everyone else's! So that loving one's child because he/she is of one's own blood is kind of exclusive thing. Therefore genetic vanity is a desire to see a carrying on of one's own genes. As a result the intended parent may get a surrogate for one reason or another.
Surrogacy, worldwide, spins a web of emotional, social and legal issues. Such that they are discussed in brief below:
SOCIAL ISSUES
India may have been a booming centre of 'reproductive tourism' for several years now, but there are still number of stones left unturned. India is known for her cultural and traditional values that are imparted to her female citizens. No matter how modern and sophisticated they might start acting, the mentality of preserving moral values cannot be easily forgotten. There was a time when the thought of carrying child without getting married was considered immoral and unethical, let alone having someone else's child in exchange of money. However times have changed drastically, nowadays a woman can use her body in whatever way she desires to as long as she wants it. Such that the law itself provides for the same as long as it is legal. It would definitely never prohibit an act which involves giving birth to a life.
Most astonishingly, surrogacy, which once was frowned upon is quite prevalent within different territories of India, mostly backward of course. Such that, whether it is a boon or a bane is yet to be decided. It is not surprising that most of the uneducated women opt for becoming a surrogate mother is because they are in dire need of money and why they wouldn't! Surrogacy is the rich business. All the medical bills, from the date of insertion to the date of delivery, the surrogate mother is pampered and looked upon. Such that they get everything at their beck and call as long as they are carrying other's child in their wombs for that period.
It is said that money is not everything but to these women who are living in filthy and pitiable situation, for them it might just be everything. It solves their problem of never going empty stomach to bed or having to worry about their families. So is surrogacy ethical? Is outsourcing surrogacy to developing countries a bad thing? The views might differ of course. Though on its most fundamental level, surrogate motherhood can be interpreted as an economic transaction, the reality is far more complex due to the degree of intimacy involved. On top of the basic economics of the situation, there are layers of emotional complexity, rights of bodily autonomy, and unaddressed questions of women's rights in developing countries.
Surrogacy is a matter of choice. Indian constitution guarantees a dignified life to every citizen as a fundamental right. Hence, if a woman wants to be a surrogate mother in order to feed her own family, she has every right to do it! Hence this pregnancy becomes a gift of life not only to that childless couple but to that of the surrogate's mother family. Besides going by the illiteracy rate, how much of a choice does an Indian woman really have? Moreover, equal rights for women means giving women autonomy to choose for themselves, to choose their lifestyle, sexual, and reproductive freedom. With that premise in mind, telling a woman that hosting a surrogate pregnancy dehumanizes her just imposes a new form of paternalism. Why not let each woman choose for herself then? In reality the talk of women empowerment is just the cover up. What actually lies underneath is more barbaric in nature. Such that critics of outsourcing surrogacy argue that payment for bodily services dehumanizes the surrogate mother and exploits her reproductive organs and capability for personal gain of the wealthy.
The need for reproductive freedom, procreative liberty and of the negative right of interference by government on matters of personal choice is undeniable. However, the silence of the Indian government is in line with values of democracy, with ethical guidelines advocating for a woman's autonomy to choose her own reproductive rights tells a different story all together. Such that it only gets worse. India is one of the fastest developing nations; however our outlook is nowhere as developed as we think. Another popular view for instance is that surrogacy is similar to prostitution. It is often pointed out that it reduces women's reproductive labour to a form of alienated and/ or dehumanized labour. Such that motherhood is becoming a new branch of female prostitution with the help of scientists who want access to the womb for experimentation and power wherein it is the womb and not the vagina that is being bought. However this is an unfair comparison as that women's reproductive labour, like their sexuality, cannot be compared or treated in the same way as other forms of physical labour. It is very important to understand that pregnancy is not simply a biological process but also a social practice. It's a social and gestational labour, making it off as an occasion for the parents to prepare themselves to welcome a new life into their family. Some even do it as a gesture for their loved one's. Moreover, it is not a new fact that every day we trade money for services without forming a deep personal or emotional relationship with each other..
HEALTH ISSUES
Like every coin has two sides, there is one dark side to this as well. It is not necessary that the woman who becomes ready to carry a child will always be in a good health from the beginning of the process. Such that it known fact that mostly those women who go for surrogacy usually do it for the money to survive. Hence, it is obvious that they are in poor health and during or after pregnancy, a possibility of complication would hardly be surprising. This is where the problem generally arises in respect to the surrogacy contract between the surrogate mother and the couples. Usually the surrogacy contracts made between the two parties is drafted along the lines that the childless parents provide for the health and care of the mother till the time she delivers. This means that incase of complications after delivery there is no legislation which provides either for the health or medical bills for the surrogate mother once she has given birth.
Moreover cases wherein the child born suffers from certain birth defects also pose a problem for these surrogate mothers. Congenital diseases are those inheritdatairy defects have got nothing to do with the genes of the biological parents, but with that of surrogate mother's health. The food she ingests, the way she lives, the vices, if any, she suffers from, the cleanliness of her surroundings, all have a bearing on the wellness of the child to be delivered. Such that after the delivery the child so born if has some birth defects from the stage of conception., in that case what happens to that child is still not provided anywhere in the act. In the end is it fair for a female to carry the risk of having someone else's child for money? Moreover this has become a practice in most of the rural areas which forces one to think that is it correct for a female to practice surrogacy again and again judging by the ill effects of pregnancy.
EMOTIONAL ISSUES
The bond between a mother and her child is a sacred one. However, the application of economic norms to the sphere of women's labour violates their claim to respect and consideration. Firstly, by requiring the surrogate mother to repress whatever paternal love she feels for the child, these norms convert women's labour into a form of alienated labour which basically makes it harder for women to opt for it. Also, by manipulating and denying perspective on her own pregnancy, the norms of the market degrade her.
It is very important to understand that the relationship between a pregnant women and her unborn fetus is essentially different from that between a worker and his material product. Children are not means, but ends in relationships with their mothers; mothers regard the relationship as a meaningful end in itself; and not as a means to some other end. The contract may require her to act against her feelings to fulfill its terms. Such that the contract 'does not require the surrogate mother to feel in certain ways, but rather act in a certain way' Even though one might act as per the terms laid down but signing a contract does not determine what one's views and feelings might turns out to be in the future. Therefore, would undergoing a change of heart, of one's view or feelings, change the terms of the contract? If it does then wouldn't this defy the purpose of contract which was to provide mutual assurances of how the parties to contract would act in the future? This problem yet has to be dealt by covering legal grounds along with laws of nature.
Those who oppose contracts for surrogate motherhood argue that they are morally tantamount to baby-selling. With commercial surrogacy as with baby-selling, a woman is paid a fee, in exchange for relinquishing a child. However one can argue that, commercial surrogacy is more like selling sperm than selling a baby; when a woman agrees to undergo a pregnancy for pay; she does not sell a preexisting child but simply allows another couple to make use of her reproductive capacity. This can put some issues to rest however reality kicks in hard when these babies are sold off for three figures sum.
LEGAL ISSUES
While surrogacy is a boon for childless couples, there are many legal factors around it that must be kept in mind. Since renting wombs has become an easy and cheap option in India. Surreptitiously, India has become a booming centre of a fertility market with its "reproductive tourism" industry. ART (assisted reproduction technique), has been in vogue in India since 1978 and today an estimated 200,000 clinics across the country offer artificial insemination, IVF and surrogacy. In Jan Balaz v Union of India, the Gujarat High Court conferred Indian citizenship on two twin babies fathered through compensated surrogacy by a German national in Anand district in Gujarat. This in itself is proof enough that surrogacy is presumably considered legitimate because no Indian law prohibits surrogacy. But then, as a retort, no law permits surrogacy either. Hence it hoped that the proposed law will usher in a new rent-a-womb law as India is set to be the only one to legalise commercial surrogacy.
Hence commercial surrogacy is legal in India. But it's still unregulated in our country as we don't have legislation controlling surrogacy. And although the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has set 'national guidelines' to regulate surrogacy, these are still simply guidelines. All that is mentioned is that surrogate mothers need to sign a "contract" with the childless couple. There are no stipulations as to what will happen if this "contract' is violated. Issues relating to nationality of the child born out of surrogacy need to determined with thoroughness. The Indian Apex Court in one of the cases has ruled that the child delivered by an Indian surrogate mother would be the citizen of India. This poses problems for foreigners who would obviously want the child to acquire citizenship of their home country and therefore, needs to be chalked out properly.
Hopefully by passing a law in this direction will set things to change now, with India set to be the only country in the world to legalize commercial surrogacy. The proposed rent-a-womb law, if passed in the next parliamentary session, will clearly be one of the friendliest laws on surrogacy in the world.
The Draft Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Bill, 2010, is a step in the right direction. It will help regulate the functioning of the in-vitro fertilisation (IVF) centres and make the entire process of surrogacy legal. The setting up of ART banks will ensure quality check and accountability. The proposed Bill, however, legalizes not only surrogacy per se but even commercial surrogacy or surrogacy "for monetary compensation" or "on mutually agreed financial terms". It provides that surrogate mother can receive monetary compensation for carrying the child in addition to health-care and treatment expenses during pregnancy. But the surrogate mother has to relinquish all parental rights over the child once the amount is transferred and birth certificates will be in the name of genetic parents. The age-limit for a surrogate mother is between 21- 45 years. Single parents can also have children using a surrogate mother. This first-of-its-kind Bill to control and monitor cases of surrogacy in the country has been drafted by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, along with the Indian Council for Medical Research (ICMR) which makes surrogacy agreements between the two parties legally enforceable. In addition it said that the new law protects everyone involved which include genetic parents, surrogate mother and the child. However, the Draft Bill lacks the creation of a specialist legal authority for adjudication and determination of legal rights of parties by a judicial verdict and falls in conflict with the existing laws. These pitfalls need to be examined closely before enacting the legislation.
The law commission of India has also submitted on "need for legislation to relegate assisted reproductive technology clinics as well as rights and obligations of parties to a surrogacy." Such that the various measures proposed includes that the surrogate mother shall be allowed to bear a child with her and her family's consent such that in the event of death of the commissioning couple or other, the surrogate child shall be provided with financial support. This surrogate child is to give the legitimacy of his commissioning parents wherein one of them has to be related to the child (donor). Hence we see that most of the questions raised are covered up with the proposed legislation. But it is still quite clear that there is a wide difference between the laws on different issues of surrogacy. Sometimes they seem to be uniform and sometime they are completely deserted.
PREVALENCE AND SUCCESS OF SURROGACY IN INDIA
India's surrogacy boom began in January 2004 with a grandmother delivering her daughter's twins. The success spawned a virtual cottage industry in Gujarat. Today, India boasts of being the first to legalize commercial surrogacy soon to legitimize both intra-and inter-country surrogacy. Prevalence in India is hard to predict as there are no exact figures available and prevalence is also dependent on specialized centre's that cater to surrogacy as an option to couples that have no other way of getting a baby of their own.
However, the success rate of surrogacy is almost astonishing and increasing with an alarming rate. The surrogacy package price covers doctor fees, legal fees, surrogate work up, antenatal care, delivery charges, surrogate compensation, egg donor, drugs and consumables, & IVF costs.
India is emerging as a leader in international surrogacy and a destination in surrogacy- related fertility tourism. Indian surrogates have been increasingly popular with fertile couple in industrialized nations because of the relatively lost cost. Indian clinics are at the same time becoming more competitive, not just in the pricing, but in the hiring and retention of Indian females as surrogates. Such that with things becoming easier and legal, people might become overenthusiastic and have a baby for which they are not emotionally prepared on a long-term basis. Neglect and abuse of these children is an issue of concern and a mechanism should be put in place for monitoring their progress by social agencies.
CONCLUSION
Therefore, surrogacy is, in and out, neither necessarily good nor necessarily bad. If surrogacy were bad, it would be easy to say "ban it." But if it can be either good or bad then I suppose the question must be whether it is possible to structure it or regulate it in such a way that the good outweighs the bad substantially enough to make the whole package worthwhile. If implemented properly, it can be quite positive. Such that the law does not necessarily promote moral and ethical behavior but it can help to be very persuading. Such that there is no doubt that Surrogate motherhood is a positive addition to the ever-expanding range of technologies now available as remedies for infertility. Commercial surrogacy is necessary evil. No matter how unethical or immoral it may sound but in a poverty stricken country like India people take it as blessing in disguise. Commodification of children is an inextricable part of the process of surrogacy, any more than it is an inextricable part of any other process by which one becomes a parent. The fact that it's new should not prevent it from being regulated in form of a law. This is already boosting reproductive tourism and globalization. It cannot be ignored solely on the argument that this is not what our ancestors have approved of because at the end of the day every woman has the right to market be it her organs for donation or her womb for giving life to a childless couple. If it is morally permissible for men to sell off sperms on the basis of their reproductive capacity, why is it not morally permissible for women to sell theirs in this gender equality based country?
At the end, I believe that in order to make any of this possible, it is essential to remove the feeling of degradation that comes into people's mind when faced with the concept of "renting a womb" by both educating them and empowering them with actual factoids.
Traditional Surrogacy (the straight method) is a term wherein a female agrees to carry a child in her womb. Such that she plays a role of surrogate mother to that fetus for next nine months. The word surrogate literally means "substitute" or "replacement". A surrogate mother is therefore a substitute mother. Thus, Surrogacy is an arrangement in which a woman carries and delivers a child for another couple or person. She may have made an arrangement to relinquish it to the biological mother or father to raise, or to a parent who is unrelated to the child. The surrogate mother may be also called the gestational carrier. This is further of two types: Altuistic surrogacy and Commercial surrogacy on the basis of monetary value.
Altruistic surrogacy is a situation where the surrogate receives no financial reward for her pregnancy or the relinquishment of the child (although usually all expenses related to the pregnancy and birth are paid by the intended parents such as medical expenses, maternity clothing, and other related expenses). However, Commercial surrogacy consists of certain amount of financial reward and hence is the most popular of both forms. Such that in was in Manji's case in 2002 that Supreme Court of India held that commercial surrogacy was legal in India. The reason for its popularity is due to firstly, high international demand and secondly, ready availability of poor surrogates. Hence, Commercial surrogacy is sometimes also referred to by the emotionally charged and potentially offensive terms like "wombs for rent", "outsourced pregnancies" or "baby farms".
The roots of surrogacy arose as a result of Babylonian law and custom which allowed this practice wherein an infertile woman could use the practice to avoid the divorce which would otherwise be inevitable. This involved another woman having bear a child for a couple to raise, usually with the male half of the couple as the genetic father. Such that this practice became kind of a revolution in this modern era of globalization especially for developing countries like India only difference being that now the same is done in exchange of money.
Judging by Indian history, the Indian economy has come quite far ever since independence. This is quite evident from current GDP or sex ratio or education rate. However, they all are merely figures and certainly not enough. The actual reality lies beneath her veil and it is safe to say that it is not a pretty picture. It is the combination of poverty, illiteracy and the lack of power with women over their own life which is proving to be a fatal combination. For a country wherein the literacy rate is depleting at fast pace and female fetuses are being killed in wombs or sold at low rates, laws on surrogacy are need of the hour.
There are number of implications that arise as a result of surrogacy. It is all together a complicated process which requires a set of concrete laws that need to govern this arrangement. Surrogacy over adoption is mostly is opted by childless couples because they want to have some kind of genetic attachment to their child to be born. This is often termed as 'genetic vanity". It means that the parents want some kind of genes which they could relate to. It somewhat highlights the quality of only love's one's own and hate everyone else's! So that loving one's child because he/she is of one's own blood is kind of exclusive thing. Therefore genetic vanity is a desire to see a carrying on of one's own genes. As a result the intended parent may get a surrogate for one reason or another.
Surrogacy, worldwide, spins a web of emotional, social and legal issues. Such that they are discussed in brief below:
SOCIAL ISSUES
India may have been a booming centre of 'reproductive tourism' for several years now, but there are still number of stones left unturned. India is known for her cultural and traditional values that are imparted to her female citizens. No matter how modern and sophisticated they might start acting, the mentality of preserving moral values cannot be easily forgotten. There was a time when the thought of carrying child without getting married was considered immoral and unethical, let alone having someone else's child in exchange of money. However times have changed drastically, nowadays a woman can use her body in whatever way she desires to as long as she wants it. Such that the law itself provides for the same as long as it is legal. It would definitely never prohibit an act which involves giving birth to a life.
Most astonishingly, surrogacy, which once was frowned upon is quite prevalent within different territories of India, mostly backward of course. Such that, whether it is a boon or a bane is yet to be decided. It is not surprising that most of the uneducated women opt for becoming a surrogate mother is because they are in dire need of money and why they wouldn't! Surrogacy is the rich business. All the medical bills, from the date of insertion to the date of delivery, the surrogate mother is pampered and looked upon. Such that they get everything at their beck and call as long as they are carrying other's child in their wombs for that period.
It is said that money is not everything but to these women who are living in filthy and pitiable situation, for them it might just be everything. It solves their problem of never going empty stomach to bed or having to worry about their families. So is surrogacy ethical? Is outsourcing surrogacy to developing countries a bad thing? The views might differ of course. Though on its most fundamental level, surrogate motherhood can be interpreted as an economic transaction, the reality is far more complex due to the degree of intimacy involved. On top of the basic economics of the situation, there are layers of emotional complexity, rights of bodily autonomy, and unaddressed questions of women's rights in developing countries.
Surrogacy is a matter of choice. Indian constitution guarantees a dignified life to every citizen as a fundamental right. Hence, if a woman wants to be a surrogate mother in order to feed her own family, she has every right to do it! Hence this pregnancy becomes a gift of life not only to that childless couple but to that of the surrogate's mother family. Besides going by the illiteracy rate, how much of a choice does an Indian woman really have? Moreover, equal rights for women means giving women autonomy to choose for themselves, to choose their lifestyle, sexual, and reproductive freedom. With that premise in mind, telling a woman that hosting a surrogate pregnancy dehumanizes her just imposes a new form of paternalism. Why not let each woman choose for herself then? In reality the talk of women empowerment is just the cover up. What actually lies underneath is more barbaric in nature. Such that critics of outsourcing surrogacy argue that payment for bodily services dehumanizes the surrogate mother and exploits her reproductive organs and capability for personal gain of the wealthy.
The need for reproductive freedom, procreative liberty and of the negative right of interference by government on matters of personal choice is undeniable. However, the silence of the Indian government is in line with values of democracy, with ethical guidelines advocating for a woman's autonomy to choose her own reproductive rights tells a different story all together. Such that it only gets worse. India is one of the fastest developing nations; however our outlook is nowhere as developed as we think. Another popular view for instance is that surrogacy is similar to prostitution. It is often pointed out that it reduces women's reproductive labour to a form of alienated and/ or dehumanized labour. Such that motherhood is becoming a new branch of female prostitution with the help of scientists who want access to the womb for experimentation and power wherein it is the womb and not the vagina that is being bought. However this is an unfair comparison as that women's reproductive labour, like their sexuality, cannot be compared or treated in the same way as other forms of physical labour. It is very important to understand that pregnancy is not simply a biological process but also a social practice. It's a social and gestational labour, making it off as an occasion for the parents to prepare themselves to welcome a new life into their family. Some even do it as a gesture for their loved one's. Moreover, it is not a new fact that every day we trade money for services without forming a deep personal or emotional relationship with each other..
HEALTH ISSUES
Like every coin has two sides, there is one dark side to this as well. It is not necessary that the woman who becomes ready to carry a child will always be in a good health from the beginning of the process. Such that it known fact that mostly those women who go for surrogacy usually do it for the money to survive. Hence, it is obvious that they are in poor health and during or after pregnancy, a possibility of complication would hardly be surprising. This is where the problem generally arises in respect to the surrogacy contract between the surrogate mother and the couples. Usually the surrogacy contracts made between the two parties is drafted along the lines that the childless parents provide for the health and care of the mother till the time she delivers. This means that incase of complications after delivery there is no legislation which provides either for the health or medical bills for the surrogate mother once she has given birth.
Moreover cases wherein the child born suffers from certain birth defects also pose a problem for these surrogate mothers. Congenital diseases are those inheritdatairy defects have got nothing to do with the genes of the biological parents, but with that of surrogate mother's health. The food she ingests, the way she lives, the vices, if any, she suffers from, the cleanliness of her surroundings, all have a bearing on the wellness of the child to be delivered. Such that after the delivery the child so born if has some birth defects from the stage of conception., in that case what happens to that child is still not provided anywhere in the act. In the end is it fair for a female to carry the risk of having someone else's child for money? Moreover this has become a practice in most of the rural areas which forces one to think that is it correct for a female to practice surrogacy again and again judging by the ill effects of pregnancy.
EMOTIONAL ISSUES
The bond between a mother and her child is a sacred one. However, the application of economic norms to the sphere of women's labour violates their claim to respect and consideration. Firstly, by requiring the surrogate mother to repress whatever paternal love she feels for the child, these norms convert women's labour into a form of alienated labour which basically makes it harder for women to opt for it. Also, by manipulating and denying perspective on her own pregnancy, the norms of the market degrade her.
It is very important to understand that the relationship between a pregnant women and her unborn fetus is essentially different from that between a worker and his material product. Children are not means, but ends in relationships with their mothers; mothers regard the relationship as a meaningful end in itself; and not as a means to some other end. The contract may require her to act against her feelings to fulfill its terms. Such that the contract 'does not require the surrogate mother to feel in certain ways, but rather act in a certain way' Even though one might act as per the terms laid down but signing a contract does not determine what one's views and feelings might turns out to be in the future. Therefore, would undergoing a change of heart, of one's view or feelings, change the terms of the contract? If it does then wouldn't this defy the purpose of contract which was to provide mutual assurances of how the parties to contract would act in the future? This problem yet has to be dealt by covering legal grounds along with laws of nature.
Those who oppose contracts for surrogate motherhood argue that they are morally tantamount to baby-selling. With commercial surrogacy as with baby-selling, a woman is paid a fee, in exchange for relinquishing a child. However one can argue that, commercial surrogacy is more like selling sperm than selling a baby; when a woman agrees to undergo a pregnancy for pay; she does not sell a preexisting child but simply allows another couple to make use of her reproductive capacity. This can put some issues to rest however reality kicks in hard when these babies are sold off for three figures sum.
LEGAL ISSUES
While surrogacy is a boon for childless couples, there are many legal factors around it that must be kept in mind. Since renting wombs has become an easy and cheap option in India. Surreptitiously, India has become a booming centre of a fertility market with its "reproductive tourism" industry. ART (assisted reproduction technique), has been in vogue in India since 1978 and today an estimated 200,000 clinics across the country offer artificial insemination, IVF and surrogacy. In Jan Balaz v Union of India, the Gujarat High Court conferred Indian citizenship on two twin babies fathered through compensated surrogacy by a German national in Anand district in Gujarat. This in itself is proof enough that surrogacy is presumably considered legitimate because no Indian law prohibits surrogacy. But then, as a retort, no law permits surrogacy either. Hence it hoped that the proposed law will usher in a new rent-a-womb law as India is set to be the only one to legalise commercial surrogacy.
Hence commercial surrogacy is legal in India. But it's still unregulated in our country as we don't have legislation controlling surrogacy. And although the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has set 'national guidelines' to regulate surrogacy, these are still simply guidelines. All that is mentioned is that surrogate mothers need to sign a "contract" with the childless couple. There are no stipulations as to what will happen if this "contract' is violated. Issues relating to nationality of the child born out of surrogacy need to determined with thoroughness. The Indian Apex Court in one of the cases has ruled that the child delivered by an Indian surrogate mother would be the citizen of India. This poses problems for foreigners who would obviously want the child to acquire citizenship of their home country and therefore, needs to be chalked out properly.
Hopefully by passing a law in this direction will set things to change now, with India set to be the only country in the world to legalize commercial surrogacy. The proposed rent-a-womb law, if passed in the next parliamentary session, will clearly be one of the friendliest laws on surrogacy in the world.
The Draft Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Bill, 2010, is a step in the right direction. It will help regulate the functioning of the in-vitro fertilisation (IVF) centres and make the entire process of surrogacy legal. The setting up of ART banks will ensure quality check and accountability. The proposed Bill, however, legalizes not only surrogacy per se but even commercial surrogacy or surrogacy "for monetary compensation" or "on mutually agreed financial terms". It provides that surrogate mother can receive monetary compensation for carrying the child in addition to health-care and treatment expenses during pregnancy. But the surrogate mother has to relinquish all parental rights over the child once the amount is transferred and birth certificates will be in the name of genetic parents. The age-limit for a surrogate mother is between 21- 45 years. Single parents can also have children using a surrogate mother. This first-of-its-kind Bill to control and monitor cases of surrogacy in the country has been drafted by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, along with the Indian Council for Medical Research (ICMR) which makes surrogacy agreements between the two parties legally enforceable. In addition it said that the new law protects everyone involved which include genetic parents, surrogate mother and the child. However, the Draft Bill lacks the creation of a specialist legal authority for adjudication and determination of legal rights of parties by a judicial verdict and falls in conflict with the existing laws. These pitfalls need to be examined closely before enacting the legislation.
The law commission of India has also submitted on "need for legislation to relegate assisted reproductive technology clinics as well as rights and obligations of parties to a surrogacy." Such that the various measures proposed includes that the surrogate mother shall be allowed to bear a child with her and her family's consent such that in the event of death of the commissioning couple or other, the surrogate child shall be provided with financial support. This surrogate child is to give the legitimacy of his commissioning parents wherein one of them has to be related to the child (donor). Hence we see that most of the questions raised are covered up with the proposed legislation. But it is still quite clear that there is a wide difference between the laws on different issues of surrogacy. Sometimes they seem to be uniform and sometime they are completely deserted.
PREVALENCE AND SUCCESS OF SURROGACY IN INDIA
India's surrogacy boom began in January 2004 with a grandmother delivering her daughter's twins. The success spawned a virtual cottage industry in Gujarat. Today, India boasts of being the first to legalize commercial surrogacy soon to legitimize both intra-and inter-country surrogacy. Prevalence in India is hard to predict as there are no exact figures available and prevalence is also dependent on specialized centre's that cater to surrogacy as an option to couples that have no other way of getting a baby of their own.
However, the success rate of surrogacy is almost astonishing and increasing with an alarming rate. The surrogacy package price covers doctor fees, legal fees, surrogate work up, antenatal care, delivery charges, surrogate compensation, egg donor, drugs and consumables, & IVF costs.
India is emerging as a leader in international surrogacy and a destination in surrogacy- related fertility tourism. Indian surrogates have been increasingly popular with fertile couple in industrialized nations because of the relatively lost cost. Indian clinics are at the same time becoming more competitive, not just in the pricing, but in the hiring and retention of Indian females as surrogates. Such that with things becoming easier and legal, people might become overenthusiastic and have a baby for which they are not emotionally prepared on a long-term basis. Neglect and abuse of these children is an issue of concern and a mechanism should be put in place for monitoring their progress by social agencies.
CONCLUSION
Therefore, surrogacy is, in and out, neither necessarily good nor necessarily bad. If surrogacy were bad, it would be easy to say "ban it." But if it can be either good or bad then I suppose the question must be whether it is possible to structure it or regulate it in such a way that the good outweighs the bad substantially enough to make the whole package worthwhile. If implemented properly, it can be quite positive. Such that the law does not necessarily promote moral and ethical behavior but it can help to be very persuading. Such that there is no doubt that Surrogate motherhood is a positive addition to the ever-expanding range of technologies now available as remedies for infertility. Commercial surrogacy is necessary evil. No matter how unethical or immoral it may sound but in a poverty stricken country like India people take it as blessing in disguise. Commodification of children is an inextricable part of the process of surrogacy, any more than it is an inextricable part of any other process by which one becomes a parent. The fact that it's new should not prevent it from being regulated in form of a law. This is already boosting reproductive tourism and globalization. It cannot be ignored solely on the argument that this is not what our ancestors have approved of because at the end of the day every woman has the right to market be it her organs for donation or her womb for giving life to a childless couple. If it is morally permissible for men to sell off sperms on the basis of their reproductive capacity, why is it not morally permissible for women to sell theirs in this gender equality based country?
At the end, I believe that in order to make any of this possible, it is essential to remove the feeling of degradation that comes into people's mind when faced with the concept of "renting a womb" by both educating them and empowering them with actual factoids.
Thursday, February 6, 2014
The Future of Print Media in the Digital Age
o understand the future of print books in the digital age, one must first understand the history of books in society.
400 - 1500 A.D
In the Middle Ages, when printed text began to emerge, there were only religious and philosophical writings. The clergy created the material, and so they retained control over what was written and printed. Depending upon what religious sect had fashioned the text, only their view would be expressed, and only their belief was shared and openly accepted. As these works were exceptionally difficult, and elaborate to produce, they were usually only acquired by the wealthy. At that time, the wealthy consisted of the Church, the royalty, and the extremely successful merchant class. The average shopkeeper could never have afforded to own a book, and the lowly barmaid would never have been allowed to read one.
1453 - 1600
After the invention of the printing press, the reach of printed text extended further than the Church, not by much however. The manufacture of printed information was costly and time consuming. Therefore, the growth of book publication and production was funded by the popular politicians, the reigning royal family (and close friends), and the upper crust of society. It was still accepted and expected that what was considered popular reading material, be based upon the view, opinion, and preference of those who could afford to purchase the books. It was probably likely that writers, who wanted their work to be published, would write what they believed the readers wanted to read.
As more printing presses were employed, the printers themselves found methods to lower the cost and the effort needed to print greater numbers of books. As printing became more affordable, more writers could write and publish what they wanted to, and more people could afford to read what was being written. This factor began to encourage people to discover and form new opinions and beliefs, and gave them the ability and the willingness to share them with others. No longer were the elite or the church controlling what was read, allowing the people to learn freely.
1640 - 1800
The printed word comes to America. However, the common people of America were very limited in their reading material. The Bible and related writings were most common and popular, as religion and its infliction upon the masses were paramount to the first colonial settlers. Again, for a time, the churches held power over what the people read. In fact, boy children were taught to read and write in the first colonial schools, with primers that contained the alphabet, and passages of scripture. Girl children of the wealthy were taught basic reading and writing, and math skills at home by their governess. It was not acceptable until the late 1700's for girls to attend public school.
1800 - 1900
Printing was affordable, writing was open-minded and wide-ranging, reading was all the rage, and even women and children were encouraged to learn the skill. During this time, the invention of modern paper had significantly decreased the cost of the production of books and magazines. This met with the demand that the people had for more written material to read. To satisfy this demand, book publishers developed faster and more efficient, and more creative methods for the production of books, such as adding color illustrations, and using variations of typesetting.
The 1800s brought about a greater demand for specialized books and magazines as different professions were developed, and traditional professions advanced. This demand led to the conception of dedicated publishing houses. A few of the earliest established publishing houses are still recognizable in some form today, although they have merged, been taken over by other media corporations, and have transformed into different forms of media businesses. Nearly all American people had access to books by this time, except for the very poor and the completely uneducated, which made up a substantial part of the population.
The book publishing business began to grow and expand during the early and mid-1900's. During this time, specific category books became more popular, such as trade books and textbooks especially. Paperback fiction, mystery, and romance, were among the most widely read material during this time. The laid back later years of the 1900's brought about the arrival of the mail order and the book club readers. This assured that very few people were unable to find a book when they wanted one.
The late years of the last century, and the beginning of the new century, witnessed a surge in the number of and the types of bookstores available in the United States. The Internet made it possible and convenient to buy books online. There was even an experiment, (if you will) in what is known as the eBook. While it did not catch on as quickly as was expected, it is now a common aspect of the cyber community. Countless would-be authors are able to create and publish their own books in this form, and some of these eBooks are actually very popular. These eBooks are also a useful and cost efficient marketing tool for web entrepreneurs.
The book publishing industry of today and tomorrow is not that different from when it first began. The major difference being the amount of money spent and made in this industry, and the size of the publishing companies. From the very first published printed material, the intent was to spread enjoyment, enlightenment, and knowledge. I believe that the intent is still the same. However, the future of printed media is inevitably intertwined with the other forms of media communications of today, and the media that we have not yet imagined.
When the first book was published, no one could have imagined seeing that book come to life on a movie screen. When the first movie was made from a book, no one had yet imagined being able to watch that movie on a hand held screen. Printed media is encouraged to grow as our society grows, and printed media encourages the growth of the other media forms.
Imagination writes the books, and books fuel the imagination.
The future of print books is uncertain only because this media form faces many challenges in today's society and modern culture. The Internet is able to provide new directions from the traditional print book, but for many there will never be a replacement for curling up in a favorite chair with a favorite book.
400 - 1500 A.D
In the Middle Ages, when printed text began to emerge, there were only religious and philosophical writings. The clergy created the material, and so they retained control over what was written and printed. Depending upon what religious sect had fashioned the text, only their view would be expressed, and only their belief was shared and openly accepted. As these works were exceptionally difficult, and elaborate to produce, they were usually only acquired by the wealthy. At that time, the wealthy consisted of the Church, the royalty, and the extremely successful merchant class. The average shopkeeper could never have afforded to own a book, and the lowly barmaid would never have been allowed to read one.
1453 - 1600
After the invention of the printing press, the reach of printed text extended further than the Church, not by much however. The manufacture of printed information was costly and time consuming. Therefore, the growth of book publication and production was funded by the popular politicians, the reigning royal family (and close friends), and the upper crust of society. It was still accepted and expected that what was considered popular reading material, be based upon the view, opinion, and preference of those who could afford to purchase the books. It was probably likely that writers, who wanted their work to be published, would write what they believed the readers wanted to read.
As more printing presses were employed, the printers themselves found methods to lower the cost and the effort needed to print greater numbers of books. As printing became more affordable, more writers could write and publish what they wanted to, and more people could afford to read what was being written. This factor began to encourage people to discover and form new opinions and beliefs, and gave them the ability and the willingness to share them with others. No longer were the elite or the church controlling what was read, allowing the people to learn freely.
1640 - 1800
The printed word comes to America. However, the common people of America were very limited in their reading material. The Bible and related writings were most common and popular, as religion and its infliction upon the masses were paramount to the first colonial settlers. Again, for a time, the churches held power over what the people read. In fact, boy children were taught to read and write in the first colonial schools, with primers that contained the alphabet, and passages of scripture. Girl children of the wealthy were taught basic reading and writing, and math skills at home by their governess. It was not acceptable until the late 1700's for girls to attend public school.
1800 - 1900
Printing was affordable, writing was open-minded and wide-ranging, reading was all the rage, and even women and children were encouraged to learn the skill. During this time, the invention of modern paper had significantly decreased the cost of the production of books and magazines. This met with the demand that the people had for more written material to read. To satisfy this demand, book publishers developed faster and more efficient, and more creative methods for the production of books, such as adding color illustrations, and using variations of typesetting.
The 1800s brought about a greater demand for specialized books and magazines as different professions were developed, and traditional professions advanced. This demand led to the conception of dedicated publishing houses. A few of the earliest established publishing houses are still recognizable in some form today, although they have merged, been taken over by other media corporations, and have transformed into different forms of media businesses. Nearly all American people had access to books by this time, except for the very poor and the completely uneducated, which made up a substantial part of the population.
The book publishing business began to grow and expand during the early and mid-1900's. During this time, specific category books became more popular, such as trade books and textbooks especially. Paperback fiction, mystery, and romance, were among the most widely read material during this time. The laid back later years of the 1900's brought about the arrival of the mail order and the book club readers. This assured that very few people were unable to find a book when they wanted one.
The late years of the last century, and the beginning of the new century, witnessed a surge in the number of and the types of bookstores available in the United States. The Internet made it possible and convenient to buy books online. There was even an experiment, (if you will) in what is known as the eBook. While it did not catch on as quickly as was expected, it is now a common aspect of the cyber community. Countless would-be authors are able to create and publish their own books in this form, and some of these eBooks are actually very popular. These eBooks are also a useful and cost efficient marketing tool for web entrepreneurs.
The book publishing industry of today and tomorrow is not that different from when it first began. The major difference being the amount of money spent and made in this industry, and the size of the publishing companies. From the very first published printed material, the intent was to spread enjoyment, enlightenment, and knowledge. I believe that the intent is still the same. However, the future of printed media is inevitably intertwined with the other forms of media communications of today, and the media that we have not yet imagined.
When the first book was published, no one could have imagined seeing that book come to life on a movie screen. When the first movie was made from a book, no one had yet imagined being able to watch that movie on a hand held screen. Printed media is encouraged to grow as our society grows, and printed media encourages the growth of the other media forms.
Imagination writes the books, and books fuel the imagination.
The future of print books is uncertain only because this media form faces many challenges in today's society and modern culture. The Internet is able to provide new directions from the traditional print book, but for many there will never be a replacement for curling up in a favorite chair with a favorite book.
Tuesday, January 28, 2014
Advantages and Disadvantages of Tourism
“Tourism can be a blessing to a country but it is by no means an unmixed blessing.” Discuss
By: L6E1
Tourism is the world’s largest and fastest growing industry and can be defined as the totality of the relationship and phenomenon arising from travel and education purposes of people, provided the stay does not imply the establishment of a permanent residence and is not connected with remunerated activity. While it may boost a country’s economy, doubts about the overall benefits of tourism are reinforced by the belief that tourism brings adverse social and cultural effects. As an industry, it may be have several impacts on a country, both good and bad.
Tourism is a main source of income to developing countries. When tourists come to these countries, they usually spend foreign currency. These foreign exchange may help to increase developments in the country and thereby accelerates economic growth. Income from tourism in the form of foreign exchange earnings are added to the national income and this leads to improvements of infrastructure, public services, building of hospitals, schools and even hotels, which will in turn bring more tourists and thus increase the national income to a further extent.
A World Tourism Conference held in Manila stated that “ World tourism can help to eradicate the widening gap between developed and developing countries and ensure the steady acceleration of economic and social development, in particular of developing countries.’’ Most of the under-developed and developing countries are located in the South East Asia and Middle East. But these countries have a great potential for tourism as there are many places of historical and archaeological interests, which attract tourists. It should be noted that tourism is a vital and important industry in developing countries. This is so because developing countries are characterised as poor nations who rely more on income from their primary sector, which... [continues]
By: L6E1
Tourism is the world’s largest and fastest growing industry and can be defined as the totality of the relationship and phenomenon arising from travel and education purposes of people, provided the stay does not imply the establishment of a permanent residence and is not connected with remunerated activity. While it may boost a country’s economy, doubts about the overall benefits of tourism are reinforced by the belief that tourism brings adverse social and cultural effects. As an industry, it may be have several impacts on a country, both good and bad.
Tourism is a main source of income to developing countries. When tourists come to these countries, they usually spend foreign currency. These foreign exchange may help to increase developments in the country and thereby accelerates economic growth. Income from tourism in the form of foreign exchange earnings are added to the national income and this leads to improvements of infrastructure, public services, building of hospitals, schools and even hotels, which will in turn bring more tourists and thus increase the national income to a further extent.
A World Tourism Conference held in Manila stated that “ World tourism can help to eradicate the widening gap between developed and developing countries and ensure the steady acceleration of economic and social development, in particular of developing countries.’’ Most of the under-developed and developing countries are located in the South East Asia and Middle East. But these countries have a great potential for tourism as there are many places of historical and archaeological interests, which attract tourists. It should be noted that tourism is a vital and important industry in developing countries. This is so because developing countries are characterised as poor nations who rely more on income from their primary sector, which... [continues]
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Actuary
An actuary is a business professional who deals with the financial impact of risk
and uncertainty. Actuaries provide assessments of financial security
systems, with a focus on their complexity, their mathematics, and their
mechanisms (Trowbridge 1989, p. 7).
Actuaries mathematically evaluate the probability of events and quantify the contingent outcomes in order to minimize the impacts of financial losses associated with uncertain undesirable events. Since many events, such as death, cannot be avoided, it is helpful to take measures to minimize their financial impact when they occur. These risks can affect both sides of the balance sheet, and require asset management, liability management, and valuation skills. Analytical skills, business knowledge and understanding of human behavior and the vagaries of information systems are required to design and manage programs that control risk (BeAnActuary 2005a).
The profession has consistently ranked as one of the most desirable in various studies over the years. In 2006, a study by U.S. News & World Report included actuaries among the 25 Best Professions that it expects will be in great demand in the future (Nemko 2006). A study published by job search website CareerCast ranked actuary relative to other jobs in the United States as number 1 in 2010 (Needleman 2010), number 2 in 2012 (Thomas 2012) and number 1 in 2013 (Weber 2013). The study used five key criteria to rank jobs: environment, income, employment outlook, physical demands and stress.
Casualty actuaries, also known as non-life or general insurance actuaries, deal with risks that can occur to people or property other than risks related to the life or health of a person. Products prominent in their work include auto insurance, homeowners insurance, commercial property insurance, workers' compensation, title insurance, malpractice insurance, products liability insurance, directors and officers liability insurance, environmental and marine insurance, terrorism insurance and other types of liability insurance. Reinsurance products have to accommodate all of the previously mentioned products, and in addition have to reflect properly the increasing long term risks associated with climate change, cultural litigiousness, acts of war, terrorism and politics (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2009).
Both major classes of actuaries are also called upon for their expertise in enterprise risk management (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2009). This can involve dynamic financial analysis, stress testing, the formulation of corporate risk policy, and the setting up and running of corporate risk departments (Institute and Faculty of Actuaries 2011b). Actuaries are also involved in other areas of the financial services industry, and can be involved in managing corporate credit, company evaluations, and tool development (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2009).
Mathematician Nathaniel Bowditch was America's first insurance actuary
Non-life insurance started as a hedge against loss of cargo during sea travel. Anecdotal reports of such guarantees occur in the writings of Demosthenes, who lived in the 4th century BCE (Lewin 2007, pp. 3–4). The earliest records of an official non-life insurance policy come from Sicily, where there is record of a fourteenth-century contract to insure a shipment of wheat (Sweeting 2011, p. 14). In 1350, Lenardo Cattaneo assumed "all risks from act of God, or of man, and from perils of the sea" that may occur to a shipment of wheat from Sicily to Tunis up to a maximum of 300 florins. For this he was paid a premium of eighteen per cent (Lewin 2007, p. 4). In current terminology, this would be an ocean marine contract for a rate-on-line of 18%.
2003 US mortality (life) table, Table 1, Page 1
The 17th century was a period of extraordinary advances in
mathematics in Germany, France, and England. At the same time there was a
rapidly growing desire and need to place the valuation of personal risk
on a more scientific basis. Independently from each other, compound interest was studied and probability theory emerged as a well understood mathematical discipline. Another important advance came in 1662 from a London draper named John Graunt, who showed that there were predictable patterns of longevity and death in a defined group, or cohort,
of people, despite the uncertainty about the future longevity or
mortality of any one individual person. This study became the basis for
the original life table.
It was now possible to set up an insurance scheme to provide life
insurance or pensions for a group of people, and to calculate with some
degree of accuracy how much each person in the group should contribute
to a common fund assumed to earn a fixed rate of interest. The first
person to demonstrate publicly how this could be done was Edmond Halley. In addition to constructing his own life table, Halley demonstrated a method of using his life table to calculate the premium someone of a given age should pay to purchase a life-annuity (Halley 1693).
Another modern development is the convergence of modern financial theory with actuarial science (Bühlmann 1997, pp. 169–171). In the early 20th century, actuaries were developing many techniques that can be found in modern financial theory, but for various historical reasons, these developments did not achieve much recognition (Whelan 2002). However, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, there was a distinct effort for actuaries to combine financial theory and stochastic methods into their established models (D'arcy 1989). Today, the profession, both in practice and in the educational syllabi of many actuarial organizations, combines tables, loss models, stochastic methods, and financial theory (Feldblum 2001, pp. 8–9), but is still not completely aligned with modern financial economics (Bader & Gold 2003).
On the casualty side, this analysis often involves quantifying the probability of a loss event, called the frequency, and the size of that loss event, called the severity. Further, the amount of time that occurs before the loss event is also important, as the insurer will not have to pay anything until after the event has occurred. On the life side, the analysis often involves quantifying how much a potential sum of money or a financial liability will be worth at different points in the future. Since neither of these kinds of analysis are purely deterministic processes, stochastic models are often used to determine frequency and severity distributions and the parameters of these distributions. Forecasting interest yields and currency movements also plays a role in determining future costs, especially on the life side.
Actuaries do not always attempt to predict aggregate future events. Often, their work may relate to determining the cost of financial liabilities that have already occurred, called retrospective reinsurance, or the development or re-pricing of new products.
Actuaries also design and maintain products and systems. They are involved in financial reporting of companies' assets and liabilities. They must communicate complex concepts to clients who may not share their language or depth of knowledge. Actuaries work under a strict code of ethics that covers their communications and work products, but their clients may not adhere to those same standards when interpreting the data or using it within different kinds of businesses.
There has been a recent widening of the scope of the actuarial field to include investment advice and asset management. Further, there has been a convergence from the financial fields of risk management and quantitative analysis with actuarial science. Now, actuaries also work as risk managers, quantitative analysts, or investment specialists. Even actuaries in traditional roles are now studying and using the tools and data previously in the domain of finance (Feldblum 2001, p. 8). One of the latest developments in the industry, insurance securitization, requires both the actuarial and finance skills (Krutov 2006).
Another field in which actuaries are becoming more prominent is that of Enterprise Risk Management, for both financial and non-financial corporations (D'arcy 2005). For example, the Basel II accord for financial institutions, and its analogue, the Solvency II accord for insurance companies, requires such institutions to account for operational risk separately and in addition to credit, reserve, asset, and insolvency risk. Actuarial skills are well suited to this environment because of their training in analyzing various forms of risk, and judging the potential for upside gain, as well as downside loss associated with these forms of risk (D'arcy 2005).
Actuaries mathematically evaluate the probability of events and quantify the contingent outcomes in order to minimize the impacts of financial losses associated with uncertain undesirable events. Since many events, such as death, cannot be avoided, it is helpful to take measures to minimize their financial impact when they occur. These risks can affect both sides of the balance sheet, and require asset management, liability management, and valuation skills. Analytical skills, business knowledge and understanding of human behavior and the vagaries of information systems are required to design and manage programs that control risk (BeAnActuary 2005a).
The profession has consistently ranked as one of the most desirable in various studies over the years. In 2006, a study by U.S. News & World Report included actuaries among the 25 Best Professions that it expects will be in great demand in the future (Nemko 2006). A study published by job search website CareerCast ranked actuary relative to other jobs in the United States as number 1 in 2010 (Needleman 2010), number 2 in 2012 (Thomas 2012) and number 1 in 2013 (Weber 2013). The study used five key criteria to rank jobs: environment, income, employment outlook, physical demands and stress.
Contents
Disciplines
Actuaries' insurance disciplines include life; health; pensions, annuities, and asset management; social welfare programs; property; casualty; general insurance; and reinsurance. Life, health, and pension actuaries deal with mortality risk, morbidity, and consumer choice regarding the ongoing utilization of drugs and medical services risk, and investment risk. Products prominent in their work include life insurance, annuities, pensions, mortgage and credit insurance, short and long term disability, and medical, dental, health savings accounts and long term care insurance. In addition to these risks, social insurance programs are greatly influenced by public opinion, politics, budget constraints, changing demographics and other factors such as medical technology, inflation and cost of living considerations (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2009).Casualty actuaries, also known as non-life or general insurance actuaries, deal with risks that can occur to people or property other than risks related to the life or health of a person. Products prominent in their work include auto insurance, homeowners insurance, commercial property insurance, workers' compensation, title insurance, malpractice insurance, products liability insurance, directors and officers liability insurance, environmental and marine insurance, terrorism insurance and other types of liability insurance. Reinsurance products have to accommodate all of the previously mentioned products, and in addition have to reflect properly the increasing long term risks associated with climate change, cultural litigiousness, acts of war, terrorism and politics (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2009).
Both major classes of actuaries are also called upon for their expertise in enterprise risk management (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2009). This can involve dynamic financial analysis, stress testing, the formulation of corporate risk policy, and the setting up and running of corporate risk departments (Institute and Faculty of Actuaries 2011b). Actuaries are also involved in other areas of the financial services industry, and can be involved in managing corporate credit, company evaluations, and tool development (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2009).
History
Need for insurance
The basic requirements of communal interests gave rise to risk sharing since the dawn of civilization. For example, people who lived their entire lives in a camp had the risk of fire, which would leave their band or family without shelter. After basic exchange came into existence, more complex forms developed beyond a basic barter economy, and new forms of risk manifested. Merchants embarking on trade journeys bore the risk of losing goods entrusted to them, their own possessions, or even their lives. Intermediaries developed to warehouse and trade goods, and they often suffered from financial risk. The primary providers in any extended families or household always ran the risk of premature death, disability or infirmity, leaving their dependents to starve. Credit procurement was difficult if the creditor worried about repayment in the event of the borrower's death or infirmity. Alternatively, people sometimes lived too long from a financial perspective, exhausting their savings, if any, or becoming a burden on others in the extended family or society (Lewin 2007, p. 3).Early attempts
In the ancient world there was not always room for the sick, suffering, disabled, aged, or the poor—these were often not part of the cultural consciousness of societies (Perkins 1995). Early methods of protection, aside from the normal support of the extended family, involved charity; religious organizations or neighbors would collect for the destitute and needy. By the middle of the 3rd century, 1,500 suffering people were being supported by charitable operations in Rome (Perkins 1995). Charitable protection is still an active form of support to this very day (GivingUSA 2009). However, receiving charity is uncertain and is often accompanied by social stigma. Elementary mutual aid agreements and pensions did arise in antiquity (Thucydides). Early in the Roman empire, associations were formed to meet the expenses of burial, cremation, and monuments—precursors to burial insurance and friendly societies. A small sum was paid into a communal fund on a weekly basis, and upon the death of a member, the fund would cover the expenses of rites and burial. These societies sometimes sold shares in the building of columbāria, or burial vaults, owned by the fund—the precursor to mutual insurance companies (Johnston 1903, §475–§476). Other early examples of mutual surety and assurance pacts can be traced back to various forms of fellowship within the Saxon clans of England and their Germanic forbears, and to Celtic society (Loan 1992).Non-life insurance started as a hedge against loss of cargo during sea travel. Anecdotal reports of such guarantees occur in the writings of Demosthenes, who lived in the 4th century BCE (Lewin 2007, pp. 3–4). The earliest records of an official non-life insurance policy come from Sicily, where there is record of a fourteenth-century contract to insure a shipment of wheat (Sweeting 2011, p. 14). In 1350, Lenardo Cattaneo assumed "all risks from act of God, or of man, and from perils of the sea" that may occur to a shipment of wheat from Sicily to Tunis up to a maximum of 300 florins. For this he was paid a premium of eighteen per cent (Lewin 2007, p. 4). In current terminology, this would be an ocean marine contract for a rate-on-line of 18%.
Development of theory
Early actuaries
James Dodson's pioneering work on the level premium system led to the formation of the Society for Equitable Assurances on Lives and Survivorship (now commonly known as Equitable Life) in London in 1762. This was the first life insurance company to use premium rates which were calculated scientifically for long-term life policies, using Dodson's work. The company still exists, though it has run into difficulties recently. After Dodson's death in 1757, Edward Rowe Mores took over the leadership of the group that eventually became the Society for Equitable Assurances in 1762. It was he who specified that the chief official should be called an 'actuary' (Ogborn 1956, p. 235). Previously, the use of the term had been restricted to an official who recorded the decisions, or 'acts', of ecclesiastical courts, in ancient times originally the secretary of the Roman senate, responsible for compiling the Acta Senatus (Ogborn 1956, p. 233). Other companies which did not originally use such mathematical and scientific methods most often failed or were forced to adopt the methods pioneered by Equitable (Bühlmann 1997, p. 166).Development of the modern profession
Main article: Actuarial science
In the 18th and 19th centuries, computational complexity was limited
to manual calculations. The actual calculations required to compute fair
insurance premiums are rather complex. The actuaries of that time
developed methods to construct easily used tables, using sophisticated
approximations called commutation functions, to facilitate timely,
accurate, manual calculations of premiums (Slud 2006). Over time, actuarial organizations were founded to support and further both actuaries and actuarial science, and to protect the public interest by ensuring competency and ethical standards (Hickman 2004,
p. 4). However, calculations remained cumbersome, and actuarial
shortcuts were commonplace. Non-life actuaries followed in the footsteps
of their life compatriots in the early 20th century. In the United
States, the 1920 revision to workers' compensation rates took over two
months of around-the-clock work by day and night teams of actuaries (Michelbacher 1920, pp. 224, 230). In the 1930s and 1940s, however, rigorous mathematical foundations for stochastic processes were developed (Bühlmann 1997, p. 168). Actuaries could now begin to forecast losses using models of random events instead of deterministic
methods. Computers further revolutionized the actuarial profession.
From pencil-and-paper to punchcards to microcomputers, the modeling and
forecasting ability of the actuary has grown exponentially (MacGinnitie 1980, pp. 50–51).Another modern development is the convergence of modern financial theory with actuarial science (Bühlmann 1997, pp. 169–171). In the early 20th century, actuaries were developing many techniques that can be found in modern financial theory, but for various historical reasons, these developments did not achieve much recognition (Whelan 2002). However, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, there was a distinct effort for actuaries to combine financial theory and stochastic methods into their established models (D'arcy 1989). Today, the profession, both in practice and in the educational syllabi of many actuarial organizations, combines tables, loss models, stochastic methods, and financial theory (Feldblum 2001, pp. 8–9), but is still not completely aligned with modern financial economics (Bader & Gold 2003).
Responsibilities
Actuaries use skills primarily in mathematics, particularly calculus-based probability and mathematical statistics, but also economics, computer science, finance,and business to help businesses assess the risk of certain events occurring and to formulate policies that minimize the cost of that risk. For this reason, actuaries are essential to the insurance and reinsurance industry, either as staff employees or as consultants; to other businesses, including sponsors of pension plans; and to government agencies such as the Government Actuary's Department in the UK or the Social Security Administration in the US. Actuaries assemble and analyze data to estimate the probability and likely cost of the occurrence of an event such as death, sickness, injury, disability, or loss of property. Actuaries also address financial questions, including those involving the level of pension contributions required to produce a certain retirement income and the way in which a company should invest resources to maximize its return on investments in light of potential risk. Using their broad knowledge, actuaries help design and price insurance policies, pension plans, and other financial strategies in a manner which will help ensure that the plans are maintained on a sound financial basis (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2009).Traditional employment
On both the life and casualty sides, the classical function of actuaries is to calculate premiums and reserves for insurance policies covering various risks. Premiums are the amount of money the insurer needs to collect from the policyholder in order to cover the expected losses, expenses, and a provision for profit. Reserves are provisions for future liabilities and indicate how much money should be set aside now to reasonably provide for future payouts. If you inspect the balance sheet of an insurance company, you will find that the liability side consists mainly of reserves.On the casualty side, this analysis often involves quantifying the probability of a loss event, called the frequency, and the size of that loss event, called the severity. Further, the amount of time that occurs before the loss event is also important, as the insurer will not have to pay anything until after the event has occurred. On the life side, the analysis often involves quantifying how much a potential sum of money or a financial liability will be worth at different points in the future. Since neither of these kinds of analysis are purely deterministic processes, stochastic models are often used to determine frequency and severity distributions and the parameters of these distributions. Forecasting interest yields and currency movements also plays a role in determining future costs, especially on the life side.
Actuaries do not always attempt to predict aggregate future events. Often, their work may relate to determining the cost of financial liabilities that have already occurred, called retrospective reinsurance, or the development or re-pricing of new products.
Actuaries also design and maintain products and systems. They are involved in financial reporting of companies' assets and liabilities. They must communicate complex concepts to clients who may not share their language or depth of knowledge. Actuaries work under a strict code of ethics that covers their communications and work products, but their clients may not adhere to those same standards when interpreting the data or using it within different kinds of businesses.
Non-traditional employment
Many actuaries are general business managers or financial officers. They analyze business prospects with their financial skills in valuing or discounting risky future cash flows, and many apply their pricing expertise from insurance to other lines of business. Some actuaries act as expert witnesses by applying their analysis in court trials to estimate the economic value of losses such as lost profits or lost wages.There has been a recent widening of the scope of the actuarial field to include investment advice and asset management. Further, there has been a convergence from the financial fields of risk management and quantitative analysis with actuarial science. Now, actuaries also work as risk managers, quantitative analysts, or investment specialists. Even actuaries in traditional roles are now studying and using the tools and data previously in the domain of finance (Feldblum 2001, p. 8). One of the latest developments in the industry, insurance securitization, requires both the actuarial and finance skills (Krutov 2006).
Another field in which actuaries are becoming more prominent is that of Enterprise Risk Management, for both financial and non-financial corporations (D'arcy 2005). For example, the Basel II accord for financial institutions, and its analogue, the Solvency II accord for insurance companies, requires such institutions to account for operational risk separately and in addition to credit, reserve, asset, and insolvency risk. Actuarial skills are well suited to this environment because of their training in analyzing various forms of risk, and judging the potential for upside gain, as well as downside loss associated with these forms of risk (D'arcy 2005).
Remuneration
The credentialing and examination procedure for becoming a fully qualified actuary can be intensely demanding. Consequently, the profession remains very small throughout the world. As a result, actuaries are in high demand, and they are highly paid for the services they render. In the USA, newly qualified actuaries typically earn at least $100,000, while more experienced actuaries more likely earn over $150,000 per year.(Ezra 2011) In the UK, where there are approximately 9,000 fully qualified actuaries, typical post-university starting salaries range between GBP £25,300 and £35,000 ($40,500 and $56,000) and successful, more experienced actuaries can earn well in excess of £100,000 ($160,000) a year (Lomas 2009).Credentialing and exams
Main articles: Actuarial credentialing and exams and :Category:Actuarial associations
Becoming a fully credentialed actuary requires passing a rigorous
series of professional examinations, usually taking several years in
total. In some countries, such as Denmark, most study takes place in a
university setting (Norberg 1990, p. 407). In others, such as the U.S., most study takes place during employment through a series of examinations (SOA 2012, CAS 2011). In the UK, and countries based on its process, there is a hybrid university-exam structure (Institute and Faculty of Actuaries 2011a).Exam support
As these qualifying exams are rigorous, support is usually available to people progressing through the exams. Often, employers provide paid on-the-job study time and paid attendance at seminars designed for the exams (BeAnActuary 2005b). Also, many companies which employ actuaries have automatic pay raises or promotions when exams are passed. As a result, actuarial students have strong incentives for devoting adequate study time during off-work hours. A common rule of thumb for exam students is that, for the Society of Actuaries examinations, roughly 400 hours of study time are necessary for each four-hour exam (Sieger 1998). Thus, thousands of hours of study time should be anticipated over several years, assuming no failures (Feldblum 2001, p. 6). In practice, as the historical passing percentages remain below 50% for these exams, the "travel time" to credentialing is extended and more study time is needed. This process resembles formal schooling, so that actuaries who are sitting for exams are still called "students" or "candidates" despite holding important positions with substantial responsibilities.Pass marks and pass rates
Unlike some other professions, the actuarial profession is generally reluctant to specify the pass marks for its examinations. This has led to speculation over the years that the profession runs a quota system, perhaps (a) to limit the supply of those who pass the exams and qualify in the profession or (b) because a high fail rate might give the impression of difficulty and high value to a qualification that is not easy to obtain. This concern is confirmed by a former Chairman of the Board of Examiners of the Institute and Faculty of Actuaries who made the following denial (Muckart):Although students find it hard to believe, the Board of Examiners does not have fail quotas to achieve. Accordingly pass rates are free to vary (and do). They are determined by the quality of the candidates sitting the examination and in particular how well prepared they are. Fitness to pass is the criterion, not whether you can achieve a mark in the top 40% of candidates sitting.Regarding this concern, the CAS has stated (CAS 2001):
The Board further affirms that the CAS shall use no predetermined pass ratio as a guideline for setting the pass mark for any examination. If the CAS determines that 70% of all candidates have demonstrated sufficient grasp of the syllabus material, then those 70% should pass. Similarly, if the CAS determines that only 30% of all candidates have demonstrated sufficient grasp of the syllabus material, then only those 30% should pass.
Notable actuaries
- Nathaniel Bowditch
- Early American mathematician remembered for his work on ocean navigation. In 1804, Bowditch became America's first insurance actuary as president of the Essex Fire and Marine Insurance Company in Salem, Massachusetts. Under his direction, the Company prospered despite difficult political conditions and the War of 1812.
- Harald Cramér
- Swedish actuary and probabilist notable for his contributions in the area mathematical statistics, such as the Cramér–Rao inequality (Cramér 1946). Professor Cramér was an Honorary President of the Swedish Actuarial Society (Kendall 1983).
- James Dodson
- Head of the Royal Mathematical School, and Stone's School, Dodson built on the statistical mortality tables developed by Edmund Halley in 1693 (Lewin 2007, p. 38).
- Edmond Halley
- While Halley actually predated much of what is now considered the start of the actuarial profession, he was the first to mathematically and statistically rigorously calculate premiums for a life insurance policy (Halley 1693).
- James C. Hickman
- Notable actuarial educator, researcher, and author (Chaptman 2006).
- David X. Li
- Canadian qualified actuary who in the first decade of the 21st century pioneered the use of Gaussian copula models for the pricing of collateralized debt obligations (CDOs). The Financial Times called him "the world's most influential actuary," while in the aftermath of the Global financial crisis of 2008–2009, to which Li's model has been credited partly to blame, his model has been called a "recipe for disaster".
- Edward Rowe Mores
- First person to use the title 'actuary' with respect to a business position (Ogborn 1956).
- William Morgan
- Morgan was the appointed Actuary of the Society for Equitable Assurances in 1775. He expanded on Mores's and Dodson's work, and may be rightly considered the father of the actuarial profession in that his title became applied to the field as a whole.(Ogborn 1973).
- Anette Norberg
- Skip for the Swedish Women's Curling Team at the 2010 Winter Olympics. Norberg has won gold medals at the 2010 Winter Olympics, the 2006 Winter Olympics, seven European Curling Championships, and two World Curling Championships.
- Maurice Princet
- French actuary and close associate of artist Pablo Picasso. Princet is considered "Le Mathématicien du Cubisme" ("The Mathematician of Cubism") for his "critical influence on Picasso's development as an artist at the birth of cubism" (Boyle 2002).
- Frank Redington
- Developed the Redington Immunization Theory
- Isaac M. Rubinow
- Founder and first president of the Casualty Actuarial Society (CASF 2008).
- Elizur Wright
- American actuary and abolitionist, professor of mathematics at Western Reserve College (Ohio). He campaigned for laws that required life insurance companies to hold sufficient reserves to guarantee that policies would be paid (Stearns 1905).
Fictional actuaries
Main article: Fictional actuaries
Due to the low public-profile of the job, some of the most
recognizable actuaries to the general public happen to be characters in
movies. Many actuaries were unhappy with the stereotypical portrayals of
these actuaries as unhappy, math-obsessed and socially inept people;
others have claimed that the portrayals are close to home, if a bit
exaggerated (Coleman 2003).References
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- Chaptman, Dennis (September 13, 2006). "James C. Hickman, former business school dean, dies". News. University of Wisconsin–Madison. Retrieved 2008-01-11.
- Coleman, Lynn G. (Spring 2003). "Was "About Schmidt" about actuaries?". The Future Actuary 12 (1). Retrieved 2006-08-29.
- Cramér, Harald (1946). Mathematical Methods of Statistics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press. ISBN 0-691-08004-6. OCLC 185436716.
- D'arcy, Stephen P. (May 1989). "On Becoming An Actuary of the Third Kind" (PDF). Proceedings of the Casualty Actuarial Society. LXXVI (145): 45–76. Retrieved 2006-06-28.
- D'arcy, Stephen P. (November 2005). "On Becoming An Actuary of the Fourth Kind" (PDF). Proceedings of the Casualty Actuarial Society XCII (177): 745–754. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
- "Actuarial Salaries". Ezra Penland. 2011. Retrieved July 27, 2011.
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